This record is a partial extract of the original cable. The full text of the original cable is not available.

UNCLAS SECTION 01 OF 07 LILONGWE 001175 
 
SIPDIS 
 
STATE FOR EB/IFD/OIA 
JOHANNESBURG FOR FCS 
 
E.O. 12958: N/A 
TAGS: KTDB EINV EFIN ETRD ELAB PGOV OPIC USTR BUD FIN
SUBJECT: MALAWI INVESTMENT CLIMATE STATEMENT, 2005 
 
REF: SECSTATE 25036 
 
Investment Climate Statement - Malawi 2005 
--------------------------------------------- --------------- 
---------------- 
 
¶1. Openness to Foreign Investment 
 
¶A. The Government encourages both domestic and foreign 
investment in most sectors of the economy, without 
restrictions on ownership, size of investment, source of 
funds, and destination of final product.  The Competition 
And Fair Trading Act -- passed by Parliament in November 
1998 but made operational in April 2000 -- aims to regulate 
and monitor monopolies and the concentration of economic 
power, protect consumer welfare, and strengthen the 
efficient production and distribution of goods and services. 
The Act calls for the formation of a commission that will 
approve only those acquisitions, mergers or takeovers that 
increase employment and net exports, and lower prices for 
consumers.  During the first half of 2000 the U.S.-based FCA 
Investment Company, together with the two local companies, 
acquired about 63% shares in the National Insurance Company 
of Malawi (NICO) through a cash takeover.  Ministry of Trade 
and Private Sector Development is in the process of 
appointing competition Commissioners who will later set up a 
secretariat to oversee implementation of the Competition and 
 
SIPDIS 
Fair Trading Act. 
 
¶B.  There is no government screening of foreign investment 
in Malawi.  Apart from the privatization program, the 
Government's overall economic and industrial policy does not 
have discriminatory effects on foreign investors.  Since 
industrial licensing in Malawi applies to both domestic and 
foreign investment, and is only restricted to a short list 
of products, it does not impede investment, limit 
competition, protect domestic interests, or discriminate 
against foreign investors at any stage of investment. 
Restrictions are based on environmental, health, and 
national security concerns.  Affected items are firearms; 
ammunition, chemical and biological weapons; explosives; and 
manufacturing involving hazardous waste treatment/disposal 
or radioactive material.  All regulations affecting trade 
(foreign exchange, taxes, etc.) apply equally to domestic 
and foreign investors. 
 
¶C.  As of December 2004, Malawi had privatized 61 units of 
approximately 110 state-owned enterprises targeted for 
privatization, generating about MK 1.0 billion (about USD 
9.2 million).  All investors, irrespective of ethnic group 
or source of capital (foreign or local) may participate in 
the privatization program.  However, the Malawi Stock 
Exchange regulations limit participation of an individual 
foreign portfolio investor to a maximum of 10% of any class 
or category of security under the program; and limit maximum 
total foreign investment in any portfolio to 49%.  The 
Privatization Act also prohibits members of the Cabinet, or 
employees of the Privatization Commission or its 
consultants, to participate in any divestiture except where 
an offer is made to the general public.  Malawian nationals 
are offered preferential treatment, including discounted 
share prices and subsidized credit.  Since July 2000, the 
maximum subsidized credit amount has been increased from 
20,000 Malawi Kwacha (MK) (about 184 USD) to MK 50,000 
(about 459 USD) and the minimum income threshold of MK 
10,000 per month (about 92 USD) was removed.  Subsidized 
credit carries a precondition that the shares or assets be 
retained for at least two years. 
 
¶2. Conversion and Transfer Policies 
 
¶A.  There are no restrictions on remittance of foreign 
investment funds (including capital, profits, loan 
repayments and lease repayments) as long as the capital and 
loans were obtained from foreign sources and registered with 
the Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM).  The terms and conditions 
of international loans, management contracts, licensing and 
royalty arrangements, and similar transfers require initial 
RBM approval.  The RBM grants approval according to 
prevailing international standards; subsequent remittances 
do not require further approval.  All commercial banks are 
authorized by the RBM to approve remittances, and approvals 
are fairly automatic as long as the applicant's accounts 
have been audited and sufficient foreign exchange is 
available. Businesspeople report no major problems with 
foreign currency remittances.  Traditionally, foreign 
exchange availability follows the agricultural cycle in 
Malawi.  It is plentiful from April through September (when 
tobacco sales generate foreign exchange inflows), and scarce 
from October through March.  During periods of scarcity, 
investors may not have immediate access to foreign exchange. 
As of December 2004, official foreign reserves equaled 
approximately 2.0 months of import cover. Non official 
reserves totaled 1.2 months of import cover. 
¶3. Expropriation and Compensation 
¶A.  Malawi's constitution prohibits deprivation of an 
individual's property without due compensation.  There are 
effective laws that protect both local and foreign 
investment.  The likelihood of expropriatory actions has 
been extremely remote since the repeal of the forfeiture act 
in 1992.  Although public tenders for the sale of shares of 
state-owned enterprises often encourage local participation, 
foreign investors tend to dominate the share-holding of 
large MSE-listed companies requiring significant technical 
and financial resources. 
 
¶B.  The Land Reform Commission -- which the Government 
established in 1996 to review land tenure and establish a 
new land reform program -- presented its final report to the 
President in November 1999.  In January 2002, the Ministry 
of Lands published a new land policy.  Draft legislation is 
being prepared, and the new law will likely incorporate many 
recommendations of the Commission's report, including the 
abolition of freehold tenure (owners holding permanent 
title) and the conversion of all freehold titles to 
leasehold (owners holding land on lease for a maximum period 
of 99 years.)  As of July 2000, the Malawi Government 
stopped issuing freehold land. 
 
¶C.  At present, the Government may employ land acquisition 
procedures set forth in the Land Acquisition Act of 1971. 
According to this Act, the government must justify its 
acquisition as being in the public interest and must pay 
fair market value for the land.  Fair market value is 
assessed by summing the amount the owner originally paid for 
the land, the value of any permanent improvements that 
increase the productive capacity, utility or amenity of the 
land, and any appreciation of the land value.  If the 
private landowner objects to the level of compensation, he 
may obtain an independent assessment of the land value. 
According to the Act, however, such cases may not be 
challenged in court; the Ministry of Lands, Housing, 
Physical Planning, and Surveys remains the final judge. 
Most land in Malawi is leasehold. 
 
¶4. Dispute Settlement 
 
¶A.  Malawi has an independent but overburdened judiciary, 
which derives its procedures from English Common Law.  There 
has been little government interference in the court system, 
although there have on occasion been allegations of 
government involvement -- largely through public comments 
made by politicians on certain cases.  There are also 
frequent allegations of bribery in civil and criminal cases. 
Administration of the courts is weak, and due process can be 
very slow.  Serious shortcomings in the judicial system 
include poor record keeping, a lack of attorneys and trained 
personnel, heavy caseloads, and insufficient financial 
resources. 
 
¶B.  The court system in Malawi accepts and enforces foreign 
court judgments that are registered in accordance with 
established legal procedure.  There are, however, reciprocal 
agreements among Commonwealth countries to enforce judgments 
without this registration obligation.  There is no such 
agreement between Malawi and the United States. 
 
¶C.  Malawi has legislation that offers adequate protection 
for property and contractual rights.  Malawi has written 
commercial laws, which codify Common Law.  The Sale-Of-Goods 
Act, the Hire-Purchase Act, and the Competition and Fair 
Trading Act cover commercial practices.  The first two Acts 
have been consistently applied, and there is a track record 
of cases involving commercial law.  There is also a written 
and consistently applied Bankruptcy Law based on Common Law. 
Under Bankruptcy Law, secured creditors -- rank-ordered 
based upon investment registration dates -- have first 
priority in recovering money.  Monetary judgments are 
usually made in the investor's currency.  However, the 
immediate availability of foreign exchange is dependent upon 
supply, which varies on a seasonal basis. 
 
¶D.  Malawi is a member of the International Center for 
Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), and accepts 
binding international arbitration of investment disputes 
between foreign investors and the state if specified in a 
written contract.  There have been no investment disputes 
involving U.S. Companies since 1996. 
 
¶5. Performance Requirements/Incentives 
 
¶A.  Malawi is not in compliance with WTO Trade Related 
Investment Measures (TRIM) notification requirements. 
However, Malawi does not set performance requirements for 
establishing, maintaining or expanding an investment.  Nor 
does it place requirements on ownership, source of 
financing, or geographic location.  The Government accords 
export promotion zone (EPZ) status only to firms (foreign or 
domestic) that produce exclusively for export. 
 
¶B.  Malawi offers the following incentives, which apply 
equally to domestic and foreign investors: 
 
- a corporate tax rate of 35% 
- the following tax allowances: 
  -- 40% for new buildings and machinery 
  -- up to 20% for used buildings and machinery 
  -- 100% deduction for manufacturing company operating 
expenses in 2 years prior to start of business 
  -- no withholding tax on dividends; 
  -- no import duty on raw materials for manufacturing 
industry (N.B.  This policy is being implemented at the 
discretion of the Customs and Excise Department.  Several 
manufacturers have recently complained of delays and denial 
of this incentive.) 
  -- no import duty on computer equipment and accessories 
  -- tax holidays or reduced corporate tax for some new 
investments 
  -- a maximum import tariff rate of 25% 
 
¶C.  Malawi offers the following special incentives for 
exporters: 
 
- for exporters in EPZs: 
  -- no corporate tax, value added tax, or withholding tax 
on dividends 
  -- no import duty on capital equipment and raw materials; 
and 
  -- no excise taxes on local purchases of raw materials and 
packaging 
 
- for industries manufacturing in bond: 
  -- an allowance of 12% of export revenues for products 
other than tobacco, tea, sugar and coffee 
  -- transport allowance of 25% of all international 
transport costs 
  -- no import duties on capital equipment 
  -- no import duties or surtaxes on raw materials 
  -- no excise tax on local purchases of raw materials and 
packaging material 
 
¶D.  The above incentives are applied consistently.  Foreign 
investors are generally accorded national treatment.  U.S. 
and other foreign firms are able to participate in 
government/donor-financed and/or subsidized-research and 
development programs.  The following information is required 
to register and incorporate a company: name of the company, 
authorized share capital, registered office, location of 
books of accounts, address of the company secretary, and 
names of directors and shareholders. 
 
¶E.  Visas do not inhibit investors, but the need for 
employment permits sometimes can.  Expatriate employees (of 
both domestic and foreign businesses) who reside and work in 
Malawi must obtain temporary employment permits (TEPs). 
 
¶F.  The government issued a revised "Policy Statement and 
New Guidelines for The Issuance and Renewal of [Expatriate] 
Employment Permits" (one document) in November 1998.  The 
guidelines state that investors may employ expatriate 
personnel in areas where there is a shortage of "suitable 
and qualified" Malawians.  They underscored the government's 
desire to make TEPs readily available to expatriates, and 
mandated that processing times for TEP applications shall 
not exceed 40 working days.  The 1998 policy provides for 
two types of TEPs: 
 
- those for "key posts" (defined as positions of "strategic 
importance" in business operations) which are granted for 
the life-span of the organization; and; 
- those for "time posts" (defined as positions with 
contracts of three-year duration or less) which are granted 
for three-year periods and renewable once. 
 
¶G.  The government issues Business Residence Permits (BRPs) 
to foreign nationals who own/operate businesses in Malawi. 
BRPs are issued for five-year periods and are renewable. 
Permanent Residence Permits (PRPs) are issued to foreign 
spouses who reside permanently in Malawi, and to 
owners/operators of businesses who reside in Malawi for 
periods in excess of ten years.  PRP holders cannot work as 
employees.  Malawi's immigration laws governing BRPs and 
PRPs have been revised.  There are three categories of 
residence permits based on amount of investment, status of 
applicant (investor, retiree, student, spouse of a Malawi 
citizen) and period of business assignment.  The maximum 
number of resident permits per organization is five, with 
the actual number allowed dependent on the amount of 
investment. 
 
¶6. Right to Private Ownership and Establishment 
 
The government encourages both domestic and foreign 
investors to establish and own business enterprises in most 
sectors of the economy.  All investors have the right to 
establish, acquire, and dispose of interests in business 
enterprises.  Public enterprises compete equally with 
private entities with respect to access to markets, credit 
and other business operations. 
 
¶7. Protection of Property Rights 
 
¶A.  Both foreign and domestic investors have access to 
Malawi's legal system, which functions fairly well, albeit 
slowly.  Malawi has laws that govern the acquisition, 
disposition, recording and protection of all property rights 
(land, buildings, etc.) as well as intellectual property 
rights (copyrights, patents and trademarks, etc.).  The 
government has signed and adheres to bilateral and 
multilateral investment guarantee treaties and key 
agreements on intellectual property rights.  Malawi is a 
member of the convention establishing the multilateral 
investment guarantee agency, the World Intellectual Property 
Organization (WIPO), the Berne Convention, and the Universal 
Copyright Convention. 
 
¶B.  The Copyright Society of Malawi (COSOMA), established in 
1992, administers the 1989 Copyright Act, which protects 
copyrights and "neighboring" rights in Malawi.  The 
Registrar General administers the Patent and Trademarks Act, 
which protects industrial intellectual property rights in 
Malawi.  A public registry of patents and patent licenses is 
kept.  Patents must be registered through an agent. 
Trademarks are registered publicly following advertisement 
and a period of no objection.  WTO rules allow Malawi, as a 
less developed country, to delay full implementation of the 
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 
(TRIPs) agreement until 2016.  The Ministry of Commerce and 
Industry (MCI) -- coordinator of WTO issues in Malawi -- has 
limited capacity to effectively track WTO developments. The 
MCI is working with COSOMA and the Registrar General to 
align relevant domestic legislation with the WTO TRIPs 
agreement with technical assistance from the Africa Regional 
Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO). 
 
¶8. Transparency of the Regulatory System 
 
¶A.  Malawi's industrial and trade reform program -- 
including rationalization of the tax system, liberalization 
of the foreign exchange regime, and elimination of trade and 
industrial licenses on several items and businesses -- has 
produced written guidelines intended to increase government 
use of transparent and effective policies to foster 
competition.  No tax, labor, environment, health and safety 
or other laws distort or impede investment.  However, 
procedural delays, red tape, and corrupt practices continue 
to impede the business and investment approval process. 
These include decision making, which is often neither 
transparent nor based purely on merit, and required land- 
access approvals.  While market prices for goods are 
generally not controlled, prices of certain other goods -- 
sugar, maize, petroleum products, and state-provided 
utilities -- are regulated. 
 
¶B.  There have been positive steps towards increasing 
regulatory transparency and improving the foreign investment 
environment. These developments include:  establishment of 
the National Electricity Council in October 1998; the 
establishment of the Malawi Communication Regulatory 
Authority (MACRA) in May 1999; the licensing and operation 
of a second cellular phone service provider in 1999; and the 
splitting of the former Malawi Posts and Telecommunication 
Corporation (MPTC) into the Malawi Posts Corporation (MPC) 
and Malawi Telecommunications Limited (MTL) as separate 
entities in May 2000.  The state-owned Petroleum Control 
Commission (PCC) relinquished its monopoly on petroleum 
imports in May 2000, allowing the private sector to import 
80% of Malawi's fuel.  PCC now has a largely regulatory 
function within the petroleum sector. 
¶9. Efficient Capital Markets and Portfolio Investment 
¶A.  The Reserve Bank of Malawi pursues a tight monetary 
policy, though a legacy of fiscal indiscipline continues to 
exert pressure on money supply.  In 2001, growth in money 
supply (m2) was 21.2%.  M2 growth was 25.2% in 2002 and 
29.3% in 2003. The new government elected in May 2004 has 
embarked on a program of expenditure control and reduction 
in new domestic borrowing. 
 
¶B.  With the tighter monetary policy, headline inflation 
dropped from 33.7% in January 2001 to 9% in May 2003.  It 
has since crept up again, and was at 12% in October 2004. 
Reserve Bank discount rates were reduced from 35% to 25% in 
¶2004. However, excessive government spending has continued 
to put inflationary pressure on the economy.  As of end 
November 2004, the kwacha was trading at approximately 109 
to the dollar. 
 
¶C.  The private sector in Malawi has a variety of credit 
instruments.  Credit is generally allocated on market terms. 
Foreign investors may utilize domestic credit, but proceeds 
from investments made using local resources are not 
remittable. 
 
¶D.  Malawi has a sound banking sector, overseen and well 
regulated by the Reserve Bank of Malawi -- its central bank. 
There are six full-service commercial banks:  First Merchant 
Bank Limited; Finance Bank of Malawi; Indefinance; National 
Bank of Malawi (NBM); Nedbank; Stanbic Bank (SB) and Loita 
Investment Bank.  Other financial institutions are: 
Investment and Development Bank of Malawi (INDEBANK); 
Investment and Development Fund of Malawi (INDEFUND); the 
Malawi Development Corporation (MDC); Finance Corporation of 
Malawi (Fincom); Leasing and Finance Company of Malawi 
(LFC); Malawi Savings Bank (MSB); the New Building Society 
(NBS); the NBS Bank; the Malawi Rural Finance Company 
(MRFC), Continental Discount House, and First Discount 
House. 
 
¶E.  NBM and SB, which operate on a commercial, for-profit 
basis, have dominated Malawi's commercial banking sector for 
the past 30 years.  As of December 2003, these banks 
controlled over 80% of the market.  Market shares for the 
remaining banks were as follows: FMB, 6.4%; FBM, 3.8%; and 
Indefinance, 2.2%. 
 
¶F.  The structure of the Malawi banking sector changed 
significantly in 2001 with the privatization of the Stanbic 
Bank (SB).  Standard Bank of South Africa completed its 
purchase of 60% of SB in December 2001 as part of the 
privatization program. The conglomerate Press Corporation 
Limited (PCL), in which the government holds a 49% stake, 
sold out of SB but increased its holdings in rival National 
Bank of Malawi (NBM).  PCL now owns 50.1% of NBM. 
 
¶G.  The Companies Act, the Capital Market Development Act 
(1990), and the Capital Market Development Regulations 
(1992) provide the legislative and regulatory framework for 
the encouragement and facilitation of portfolio investment 
in Malawi.  The attendant legal, regulatory and accounting 
systems are transparent and consistent with international 
norms.  These acts govern the Malawi Stock Exchange (MSE). 
 
¶H.  Stockbrokers Malawi Limited (SML) is the major 
registered stockbroker in Malawi.  SML ran the MSE under a 
three-year contract with the RBM until April 1, 2000, when 
the two split to assume separate roles of broker and 
regulator, respectively.  Two new brokerage firms, 
Continental Discount House and First Discount House, began 
operations in 2001 and 2002, respectively.  The MSE remains 
regulated by the Stock Exchange Commission. 
 
¶I.  SML runs a secondary market in government securities, 
and both local and foreign investors have equal access to 
the purchase of these securities.  The following nine 
companies are listed on the MSE: NICO, Blantyre Hotels 
Limited (BHL), Sugar Corporation of Malawi (SUCOMA), Stanbic 
Bank ( Malawi) Packaging Industries of Malawi (PIM), Press 
Corporation Limited (PCL), Old Mutual, Sunbird  and National 
Bank of Malawi (NBM).  As at December 17, 2004, 6.716 
billion shares were in issue on the MSE, and the market 
capitalization was MK 745.186  billion (USD 6.84 billion). 
Other potential companies for listing on the SME include 
Bata Shoe Company, Leopard Match Company Limited, Malawi 
Insurance Brokers Limited, Manica Freight Services Limited 
and Bain Hogg Insurance Limited.  Malawi and other SADC 
markets are taking steps to harmonize listing requirements 
through the SADC stock exchange co-operation initiative. 
 
¶J.  The MSE's development is still in its nascent stage, and 
hostile takeovers have not yet occurred.  Apart from the 
restrictions under the privatization program, the U.S. 
Embassy in Malawi is not aware of any specific measures 
taken by private firms to restrict foreign investment or 
participation.  Foreign investors tend to be the dominant 
shareholders in large MSE-listed companies requiring 
significant technical and financial resources.  The 
Competition and Fair Trading Act will not cover the day-to- 
day trading on the MSE, but will regulate mergers, 
acquisitions, and takeovers that are of national interest. 
 
¶10. Political Violence 
 
¶A.  Malawi has been largely free of political violence since 
gaining independence in 1964.  Apart from the disarming of 
the paramilitary group, the Malawi Young Pioneers, incidents 
of violence associated with Malawi's 1994 transition to 
democracy were few.  Sporadic incidents of violence occurred 
at political rallies in late 1998.  The 1999 presidential 
and parliamentary election campaigns were largely free of 
political violence, but there were limited incidents of post- 
election violence (primarily small-scale property damage) in 
June 1999 and in by-elections in Blantyre in June 2001. 
Sporadic violence in the run-up to the 2004 elections, and 
in the days immediately following the elections, also 
occurred. 
 
¶B.  Incidents of labor unrest occasionally occur, but these 
are usually tame affairs.  There are, however, no nascent 
insurrections, belligerent neighbors, or other politically 
motivated activities of major concern to investors. 
 
¶11. Corruption 
 
¶A.  There are serious incidences/allegations of corruption, 
particularly in the area of customs and excise tax and 
government procurement.  The Corrupt Practices Act, revised 
in 2004, provides the legal framework for combating 
corruption in Malawi. 
 
¶B.  The Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB) is legally mandated to 
investigate corruption in Malawi.  Opened in 1997 and fully 
staffed in 1998, the ACB has thus far brought forward a 
number of high-level cases involving former cabinet-level 
officials and senior members of the ruling party, among 
others.   During the presidency of Bakili Muluzi, the ACB 
had difficulties getting cases prosecuted through the 
politically appointed Director of Public Prosecutions; these 
difficulties have in large part disappeared since the 
election of President Bingu wa Mutharika in May 2004.   The 
new administration has brought a change of leadership to the 
ACB and prioritized the prosecution of corrupt practices. 
 
¶C.  Malawi subscribes to the provisions of the OECD 
Convention on Combating Bribery, but is not a signatory to 
the Convention.  Malawi's Penal Code prohibits bribery. 
Giving or receiving a bribe -- whether to or from a Malawian 
or foreign official -- is a crime under section 90 of 
Malawi's penal code.  Accordingly, bribes are not tax 
deductible. 
 
¶12. Bilateral Investment Agreements 
 
¶A.  Malawi's policy is to negotiate bilateral investment 
treaties with countries whose nationals opt to invest in 
Malawi.  The United States-Malawi Double Taxation Agreement 
from the colonial period was canceled by the United States 
in 1983.  To date, there is neither a bilateral investment 
nor a taxation treaty.  There have been no taxation issues 
of concern to U.S. investors since 1996. 
 
¶B.  Malawi acceded to the Multilateral Investment Guarantee 
Agency (MIGA) in 1985/86.  Since MIGA provides mechanisms 
for the settlement of investment disputes, Malawi has not 
renewed several investment treaties that lapsed after 1986. 
However, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, South 
Africa, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland still maintain Double 
Taxation Treaties with Malawi. 
 
 
¶13. OPIC and Other Insurance Programs 
 
Malawi has had an OPIC investment guarantee agreement since 
¶1967.  In August 1999 the U.S. Export-Import Bank included 
Malawi under its new Africa Short-term Export Credit 
Insurance Program. 
¶14. Labor 
¶A.  The Government of Malawi estimates that more than half 
of the population is of working age. Unskilled labor is 
plentiful; skilled labor is scarce.  Occupational categories 
with skills shortages include accountants and related 
personnel; economists; engineers; primary and secondary 
school teachers; lawyers; and medical and health personnel. 
The University of Malawi provides bachelors and masters 
degrees in economics, engineering, medicine, education, 
agriculture and administration.  The Malawi College of 
Accountancy teaches accounting.  Chancellor College operates 
the country's law school.  In early 1999, the government 
established the Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational 
Education and Training (TEVET) program to address technical 
skills shortages in industry. 
 
¶B.  The Labor Relations Act (LRA) governs labor-relations 
management in Malawi.  It was signed into law in June 1996, 
and entered into force on December 1, 1997.  The Act allows 
strikes and lockouts for registered workers and employers 
after dispute settlement procedures in collective agreements 
and conciliation have failed.  As democracy and trade union 
rights have existed only since 1994, industrial relations 
are still evolving.  Employers, labor unions, and government 
generally lack sufficient knowledge of their legitimate 
roles in labor relations/disputes. 
 
¶C.  Workers have the legal right to form and join trade 
unions.  As of November 2003, 26 unions were registered. 
Union membership is low, however, given the small percentage 
of the work force in the formal sector (about 12%), the lack 
of awareness of worker rights and benefits, and a resistance 
on the part of many employees to join unions.  Only 13% of 
people employed in the formal sector belong to unions. 
Unions may form or join federations, and have the right to 
affiliate with and participate in the affairs of 
international workers' organizations.  While the government 
is a signatory to the ILO Convention protecting worker 
rights, mechanisms for enforcing the provisions of the 
convention are weak.  There are serious manpower shortages 
at the Ministry of Labor, resulting in almost no labor- 
standards inspections. 
 
¶15. Foreign Trade Zones/Free Ports 
 
Legislation for the establishment of export promotion zones 
(EPZs) came into force in December 1995.  All companies 
engaged exclusively in manufacture for export may apply for 
EPZ status.  As of November 2004, Malawi had approved 21 
firms for EPZ status, of which 17 were operational and four 
had closed operations.  A manufacturing under bond (MUB) 
scheme offers slightly less attractive incentives to 
companies that export some, but not all, of their 
manufactures. 
 
GILMOUR