This record is a partial extract of the original cable. The full text of the original cable is not available.

UNCLAS SECTION 01 OF 08 LILONGWE 000499 
 
SIPDIS 
 
DEPT FOR EB/IFD/OIA 
DEPT PLEASE PASS TO USTR 
 
E.O. 12958: N/A 
TAGS: EINV EFIN ELAB ETRD KTDB PGOV MI
SUBJECT: INVESTMENT CLIMATE STATEMENT - MALAWI 
 
REF: 03 STATE 128494 
 
¶1.  The following is the June 2004 update of Malawi's 
Investment Climate Statement. 
 
Openness to Foreign Investment 
------------------------------ 
¶2.   The Government encourages both domestic and foreign 
investment in most sectors of the economy, without 
restrictions on ownership, size of investment, source of 
funds, and destination of final product.  The 
Competition And Fair Trading Act -- passed by Parliament 
in November 1998 but made operational in April 2000 -- 
aims to regulate and monitor monopolies and the 
concentration of economic power, protect consumer 
welfare, and strengthen the efficient production and 
distribution of goods and services.  The Act calls for 
the formation of a commission that will approve only 
those acquisitions, mergers or takeovers that increase 
employment and net exports, and lower prices for 
consumers.  During the first half of 2000 the U.S.-based 
FCA Investment Company, together with the two local 
companies, acquired about 63% shares in the National 
Insurance Company of Malawi (NICO) through a cash 
takeover.  As of June 2004, however, the Ministry of 
Commerce had reported no progress in institutionalizing 
a secretariat to oversee implementation of the 
Competition and Fair Trading Act. 
 
¶3.  There is no government screening of foreign 
investment in Malawi.  Apart from the privatization 
program, the Government's overall economic and 
industrial policy does not have discriminatory effects 
on foreign investors.  Since industrial licensing in 
Malawi applies to both domestic and foreign investment, 
and is only restricted to a short list of products, it 
does not impede investment, limit competition, protect 
domestic interests, or discriminate against foreign 
investors at any stage of investment.  Restrictions are 
based on environmental, health, and national security 
concerns.  Affected items are firearms; ammunition, 
chemical and biological weapons; explosives; and 
manufacturing involving hazardous waste 
treatment/disposal or radioactive material.  All 
regulations affecting trade (foreign exchange, taxes, 
etc.) apply equally to domestic and foreign investors. 
 
¶4.  As of June 2004, Malawi had privatized 61 units  of 
approximately 110 state-owned enterprises targeted for 
privatization, generating about MK 1.0 billion (about 
USD 9.2 million).  All investors, irrespective of ethnic 
group or source of capital (foreign or local) may 
participate in the privatization program.  However, the 
Malawi Stock Exchange regulations limit participation of 
an individual foreign portfolio investor to a maximum of 
10% of any class or category of security under the 
program; and limit maximum total foreign investment in 
any portfolio to 49%.  The Privatization Act also 
prohibits members of the Cabinet, or employees of the 
Privatization Commission or its consultants, to 
participate in any divestiture except where an offer is 
made to the general public.  Malawian nationals are 
offered preferential treatment, including discounted 
share prices and subsidized credit.  Since July 2000, 
the maximum subsidized credit amount has been increased 
from 20,000 Malawi Kwacha (MK) (about 184 USD) to MK 
50,000 (about 459 USD) and the minimum income threshold 
of MK 10,000 per month (about 92 USD) was removed. 
Subsidized credit carries a precondition that the shares 
or assets be retained for at least two years. 
 
Conversion and Transfer Policies 
-------------------------------- 
¶5.  There are no restrictions on remittance of foreign 
investment funds (including capital, profits, loan 
repayments and lease repayments) as long as the capital 
and loans were obtained from foreign sources and 
registered with the Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM).  The 
terms and conditions of international loans, management 
contracts, licensing and royalty arrangements, and 
similar transfers require initial RBM approval.  The RBM 
grants approval according to prevailing international 
standards; subsequent remittances do not require further 
approval.  All commercial banks are authorized by the 
RBM to approve remittances, and approvals are fairly 
automatic as long as the applicant's accounts have been 
audited and sufficient foreign exchange is available. 
Businesspeople report no major problems with foreign 
currency remittances.  Traditionally, foreign exchange 
availability follows the agricultural cycle in Malawi. 
It is plentiful from April through September (when 
tobacco sales generate foreign exchange inflows), and 
scarce from October through March.  During periods of 
scarcity, investors may not have immediate access to 
foreign exchange.  As of January 2004, official foreign 
reserves equaled approximately 1.6  months of import 
cover. 
 
Expropriation and Compensation 
------------------------------ 
¶6.  Malawi's constitution prohibits deprivation of an 
individual's property without due compensation.  There 
are effective laws that protect both local and foreign 
investment.  The likelihood of expropriatory actions has 
been extremely remote since the repeal of the forfeiture 
act in 1992.  Although public tenders for the sale of 
shares of state-owned enterprises often encourage local 
participation, foreign investors tend to dominate the 
share-holding of large MSE-listed companies requiring 
significant technical and financial resources. 
 
¶7.  The Land Reform Commission -- which the Government 
established in 1996 to review land tenure and establish 
a new land reform program -- presented its final report 
to the President in November 1999.  In January 2002, the 
Ministry of Lands published a new land policy.  Draft 
legislation is being prepared, possibly for 
consideration by Parliament in 2004.  The draft law will 
likely incorporate many recommendations of the 
Commission's report, including the abolition of freehold 
tenure (owners holding permanent title) and the 
conversion of all freehold titles to leasehold (owners 
holding land on lease for a maximum period of 99 years.) 
As of July 2000, the Malawi Government stopped issuing 
freehold land. 
 
¶8.  At present, the Government may employ land 
acquisition procedures set forth in the Land Acquisition 
Act of 1971.  According to this Act, the government must 
justify its acquisition as being in the public interest 
and must pay fair market value for the land.  Fair 
market value is assessed by summing the amount the owner 
originally paid for the land, the value of any permanent 
improvements that increase the productive capacity, 
utility or amenity of the land, and any appreciation of 
the land value.  If the private landowner objects to the 
level of compensation, he may obtain an independent 
assessment of the land value.  According to the Act, 
however, such cases may not be challenged in court; the 
Ministry of Lands, Housing, Physical Planning, and 
Surveys remains the final judge.  Most land in Malawi is 
leasehold. 
 
Dispute Settlement 
------------------ 
¶9.  Malawi has an independent but overburdened 
judiciary, which derives its procedures from English 
Common Law.  There has been little government 
interference in the court system, although there have on 
occasion been allegations of government involvement -- 
largely through public comments made by politicians on 
certain cases.  There are also frequent allegations of 
bribery in civil and criminal cases.  Administration of 
the courts is weak, and due process can be very slow. 
Serious shortcomings in the judicial system include poor 
record keeping, a lack of attorneys and trained 
personnel, heavy caseloads, and insufficient financial 
resources. 
 
¶10.  The court system in Malawi accepts and enforces 
foreign court judgments that are registered in 
accordance with established legal procedure.  There are, 
however, reciprocal agreements among Commonwealth 
countries to enforce judgments without this registration 
obligation.  There is no such agreement between Malawi 
and the United States. 
 
¶11.  Malawi has legislation that offers adequate 
protection for property and contractual rights.  Malawi 
has written commercial laws, which codify Common Law. 
The Sale-Of-Goods Act, the Hire-Purchase Act, and the 
Competition and Fair Trading Act cover commercial 
practices.  The first two Acts have been consistently 
applied, and there is a track record of cases involving 
commercial law.  There is also a written and 
consistently applied Bankruptcy Law based on Common Law. 
Under Bankruptcy Law, secured creditors -- rank-ordered 
based upon investment registration dates -- have first 
priority in recovering money.  Monetary judgments are 
usually made in the investor's currency.  However, the 
immediate availability of foreign exchange is dependent 
upon supply, which varies on a seasonal basis. 
 
¶12.  Malawi is a member of the International Center for 
Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), and accepts 
binding international arbitration of investment disputes 
between foreign investors and the state if specified in 
a written contract.  There have been no investment 
disputes involving U.S. Companies since 1996. 
 
Performance Requirements/Incentives 
----------------------------------- 
¶13.  Malawi is not in compliance with WTO Trade Related 
Investment Measures (TRIM) notification requirements. 
However, Malawi does not set performance requirements 
for establishing, maintaining or expanding an 
investment.  Nor does it place requirements on 
ownership, source of financing, or geographic location. 
The Government accords EPZ status only to firms (foreign 
or domestic) that produce exclusively for export. 
 
¶14.  Malawi offers the following incentives, which apply 
equally to domestic and foreign investors: 
 
-- a corporate tax rate of 35%; 
 
-- the following tax allowances: 40% for new buildings 
and machinery; up to 20% for used buildings and 
machinery; 100% deduction for manufacturing company 
operating expenses in 2 years prior to start of 
business; and no withholding tax on dividends; 
 
-- no import duty on raw materials for manufacturing 
industry (N.B.  This policy is being implemented at the 
discretion of the Customs and Excise Department. 
Several manufacturers have recently complained of delays 
and denial of this incentive.); 
 
-- no import duty on computer equipment and accessories; 
 
-- tax holidays or reduced corporate tax for some new 
investments; and; 
 
-- a maximum import tariff rate of 25%. 
 
¶15.  Malawi offers the following special incentives for 
exporters: 
 
-- for exporters in EPZs: no corporate tax, value added 
tax, or withholding tax on dividends; no import duty on 
capital equipment and raw materials; and; no excise 
taxes on local purchases of raw materials and packaging. 
 
-- for industries manufacturing in bond: an 
allowance of 12% of export revenues for products other 
than Tobacco, tea, sugar and coffee; transport allowance 
of 25% of all international transport costs; no import 
duties on capital equipment; no import duties or 
surtaxes on raw materials; and no excise tax on local 
purchases of raw materials and packaging material. 
 
¶16.  The incentives in paragraphs 68 and 69 are applied 
consistently.  Foreign investors are generally accorded 
national treatment.  U.S. and other foreign firms are 
able to participate in government/donor-financed and/or 
subsidized-research and development programs.  The 
following information is required to register and 
incorporate a company: name of the company, authorized 
share capital, registered office, location of books of 
accounts, address of the company secretary, and names of 
directors and shareholders. 
 
¶17.  Visas do not inhibit investors, but the need for 
employment permits sometimes can.  Expatriate employees 
(of both domestic and foreign businesses) who reside and 
work in Malawi must obtain temporary employment permits 
(TEPs). 
 
¶18.  The government issued a revised "Policy Statement 
and New Guidelines for The Issuance and Renewal of 
[Expatriate] Employment Permits" (one document) in 
November 1998.  The new guidelines state that investors 
may employ expatriate personnel in areas where there is 
a shortage of "suitable and qualified" Malawians.  They 
underscored the government's desire to make TEPs readily 
available to expatriates, and mandated that processing 
times for TEP applications shall not exceed 40 working 
days.  The 1998 policy provides for two types of TEPs: 
 
-- those for "key posts" (defined as positions of 
"strategic importance" in business operations) which are 
granted for the life-span of the organization; and; 
 
-- those for "time posts" (defined as positions with 
contracts of three-year duration or less) which are 
granted for three-year periods and renewable once. 
 
¶19.  The government issues Business Residence Permits 
(BRPs) to foreign nationals who own/operate businesses 
in Malawi.  BRPs are issued for five-year periods and 
are renewable.  Permanent Residence Permits (PRPs) are 
issued to foreign spouses who reside permanently in 
Malawi, and to owners/operators of businesses who reside 
in Malawi for periods in excess of ten years.  PRP 
holders cannot work as employees.  Malawi's immigration 
laws governing BRPs and PRPs have been revised.  There 
are three categories of residence permits based on 
amount of investment, status of applicant (investor, 
retiree, student, spouse of a Malawi citizen) and period 
of business assignment.  The maximum number of resident 
permits per organization is five, with the actual number 
allowed dependent on the amount of investment. 
 
Right to Private Ownership and Establishment 
-------------------------------------------- 
¶20.  The government encourages both domestic and foreign 
investors to establish and own business enterprises in 
most sectors of the economy.  All investors have the 
right to establish, acquire, and dispose of interests in 
business enterprises.  Public enterprises compete 
equally with private entities with respect to access to 
markets, credit and other business operations. 
 
Protection of Property Rights 
----------------------------- 
¶21.  Both foreign and domestic investors have access to 
Malawi's legal system, which functions fairly well, 
albeit slowly.  Malawi has laws that govern the 
acquisition, disposition, recording and protection of 
all property rights (land, buildings, etc.) as well as 
intellectual property rights (copyrights, patents and 
trademarks, etc.).  The government has signed and 
adheres to bilateral and multilateral investment 
guarantee treaties and key agreements on intellectual 
property rights.  Malawi is a member of the convention 
establishing the multilateral investment guarantee 
agency, the World Intellectual Property Organization 
(WIPO), the Berne Convention, and the Universal 
Copyright Convention. 
 
¶22.  The Copyright Society of Malawi (COSOMA), 
established in 1992, administers the 1989 Copyright Act 
which protects copyrights and "neighboring" rights in 
Malawi.  The Registrar General administers the Patent 
and Trademarks Act which protects industrial 
intellectual property rights in Malawi.  A public 
registry of patents and patent licenses is kept. 
Patents must be registered through an agent.  Trademarks 
are registered publicly following advertisement and a 
period of no objection.  WTO rules allow Malawi (as a 
less developed country) to delay full implementation of 
the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property 
Rights (TRIPs) agreement until 2016.  The Ministry of 
Commerce and Industry (MCI) -- coordinator of WTO issues 
in Malawi -- has limited capacity to effectively track 
WTO developments. The MCI is working with COSOMA and the 
Registrar General to align relevant domestic legislation 
with the WTO TRIPs agreement with technical assistance 
from the Africa Regional Intellectual Property 
Organization (ARIPO). 
 
Transparency of the Regulatory System 
------------------------------------- 
¶23.  Malawi's industrial and trade reform program -- 
including rationalization of the tax system, 
liberalization of the foreign exchange regime, and 
elimination of trade and industrial licenses on several 
items and businesses -- has produced written guidelines 
intended to increase government use of transparent and 
effective policies to foster competition.  No tax, 
labor, environment, health and safety or other laws 
distort or impede investment.  However, procedural 
delays, red tape, and corrupt practices continue to 
impede the business and investment approval process. 
These include decision making, which is often neither 
transparent nor based purely on merit, and required 
land-access approvals.  While market prices for goods 
are generally not controlled, prices of certain other 
goods -- sugar (not well enforced), maize, petroleum 
products, and state-provided utilities -- are regulated. 
 
¶24. There have been positive steps towards increasing 
regulatory transparency and improving the foreign 
investment environment. These developments include: 
establishment of the National Electricity Council in 
October 1998; the establishment of the Malawi 
Communication Regulatory Authority (MACRA) in May 1999; 
the licensing and operation of a second cellular phone 
service provider in 1999; and the splitting of the 
former Malawi Posts and Telecommunication Corporation 
(MPTC) into the Malawi Posts Corporation (MPC) and 
Malawi Telecommunications Limited (MTL) as separate 
entities in May 2000.  The state-owned Petroleum Control 
Commission (PCC) relinquished its monopoly on petroleum 
imports in May 2000, allowing the private sector to 
import 80% of Malawi's fuel.  PCC now has a largely 
regulatory function within the petroleum sector. 
 
Efficient Capital Markets and Portfolio Investment 
--------------------------------------------- ----- 
¶25.  The Reserve Bank of Malawi has pursued a tight 
monetary policy since 2001.  In December 2000, growth in 
money supply (m2) was 42.4%.  In contrast, m2 growth was 
21.2% in 2001, 25.2% 2002, and 29.3% in 2003. 
 
¶26.  With the tighter monetary policy, headline 
inflation has dropped from 33.7% in January 2001 to 9% 
in May 2003.  It has since crept up again, and is now 
slightly above 10%.  Reserve Bank discount rates remain 
high at 35.0%, however, as excessive government spending 
has continued to put inflationary pressure on the 
economy.  As of May 2004, the kwacha was  trading at 
approximately 109 to the dollar. 
 
¶27.  The private sector in Malawi has a variety of 
credit instruments.  Credit is generally allocated on 
market terms.  Foreign investors may utilize domestic 
credit, but proceeds from investments made using local 
resources are not remittable. 
 
¶28.  Malawi has a sound banking sector, overseen and 
well regulated by the Reserve Bank of Malawi -- its 
central bank.  There are six full-service commercial 
banks:  First Merchant Bank Limited; Finance Bank of 
Malawi; Indefinance; National Bank of Malawi (NBM); 
Stanbic Bank (SB) and Loita Investment Bank.  Other 
financial institutions are: Investment and Development 
Bank of Malawi (INDEBANK); Investment and Development 
Fund of Malawi (INDEFUND); the Malawi Development 
Corporation (MDC); Finance Corporation of Malawi 
(Fincom); Leasing and Finance Company of Malawi (LFC); 
Malawi Savings Bank (MSB); the New Building Society 
(NBS); the Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC), 
Continental Discount House, and First Discount House. 
 
¶29.  NBM and SB, which operate on a commercial, for- 
profit basis, have dominated Malawi's commercial banking 
sector for the past 30 years.  As of December 2003, 
these banks controlled over 80% of the market.  Market 
shares for the remaining banks were as follows: FMB, 
6.4%; FBM, 3.8%; and Indefinance, 2.2%. 
 
¶30.  The structure of the Malawi banking sector changed 
significantly in 2001 with the privatization of the 
Stanbic Bank (SB).  Standard Bank of South Africa 
completed its purchase of 60% of SB in December 2001 as 
part of the privatization program. The conglomerate 
Press Corporation Limited (PCL), in which the government 
holds a 49% stake, sold out of SB but increased its 
holdings in rival National Bank of Malawi (NBM).  PCL 
now owns 50.1% of NBM. 
 
¶31.  The Companies Act, the Capital Market Development 
Act (1990), and the Capital Market Development 
Regulations (1992) provide the legislative and 
regulatory framework for the encouragement and 
facilitation of portfolio investment in Malawi.  The 
attendant legal, regulatory and accounting systems are 
transparent and consistent with international norms. 
These acts govern the Malawi Stock Exchange (MSE). 
 
¶32.  Stockbrokers Malawi Limited (SML) is the major 
registered stockbroker in Malawi.  SML ran the MSE under 
a three-year contract with the RBM until April 1, 2000 
when the two split to assume separate roles of a broker 
and regulator, respectively.  Two new brokerage firms, 
Continental Discount House and First Discount House, 
began operations in 2001 and 2002, respectively.  The 
MSE remains regulated by the Stock Exchange Commission. 
 
¶33.  SML runs a secondary market in government 
securities, and both local and foreign investors have 
equal access to the purchase of these securities.  The 
following eight companies are listed on the MSE: NICO, 
Blantyre Hotels Limited (BHL), Sugar Corporation of 
Malawi (SUCOMA), Commercial Bank of Malawi (CBM), 
Packaging Industries of Malawi (PIM), Press Corporation 
Limited (PCL), Old Mutual and National Bank of Malawi 
(NBM).  As of October 2003, 5.771 billion shares were in 
issue on the MSE, and the market capitalization was MK 
418.352  billion (USD 3.8 billion).  Other potential 
companies for listing on the SME include Bata Shoe 
Company, Leopard Match Company Limited, Malawi Insurance 
Brokers Limited, Manica Freight Services Limited and 
Bain Hogg Insurance Limited.  Malawi and other SADC 
markets are taking steps to harmonize listing 
requirements through the SADC stock exchange co- 
operation initiative. 
 
¶34.  The MSE's development is still in its nascent 
stage, and hostile takeovers have not yet occurred. 
Apart from the restrictions under the privatization 
program, the U.S. Embassy in Malawi is not aware of any 
specific measures taken by private firms to restrict 
foreign investment or participation.  Foreign investors 
tend to be the dominant shareholders in large MSE-listed 
companies requiring significant technical and financial 
resources.  The Competition and Fair Trading Act will 
not cover the day-to-day trading on the MSE, but will 
regulate mergers, acquisitions, and takeovers that are 
of national interest. 
 
Political Violence 
------------------ 
¶35.  Malawi has been largely free of political violence 
since gaining independence in 1964.  Apart from the 
disarming of the paramilitary group, the Malawi Young 
Pioneers, incidents of violence associated with Malawi's 
1994 transition to democracy were few.  Sporadic 
incidents of violence occurred at political rallies in 
late 1998.  The 1999 presidential and parliamentary 
election campaigns were largely free of political 
violence, but there were limited incidents of post- 
election violence (primarily small-scale property 
damage) in June 1999 and in by-elections in Blantyre in 
June 2001.  Sporadic violence in the run-up to the 2004 
elections, and in the days immediately following the 
elections, also occurred. 
 
¶36.  Incidents of labor unrest occasionally occur, but 
these are usually tame affairs.  Armed robberies 
(including carjackings) have increased in recent years. 
There are, however, no nascent insurrections, 
belligerent neighbors, or other politically motivated 
activities of major concern to investors. 
 
Corruption 
---------- 
¶37.  There are serious incidences/allegations of 
corruption, particularly in the area of customs and 
excise tax and government procurement.  The Corrupt 
Practices Act provides the legal framework for combating 
corruption in Malawi. 
 
¶38.  The Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB) is legally 
mandated to investigate corruption in Malawi.  Opened in 
1997 and fully staffed in 1998, the ACB has thus far 
brought forward one high-level case involving a former 
Minister of Transport and Public Works (acquitted). 
Three other former cabinet ministers were acquitted on 
corruption charges which seem to have been politically 
motivated.  High-profile investigations led to the 
arrest of nine customs officials -- including the vice 
president of the Malawi Congress of Trade Unions (MCTU) 
-- in December 1999, and prompted the President to 
rescind a pre-shipment inspection contract in February 
¶2000.  Given the difficulty the ACB has had in getting 
high-level cases prosecuted, Malawi's Law Commission 
recommended in 2002 that the ACB be authorized to 
prosecute cases directly, rather than through the 
politically appointed Director of Public Prosecutions 
(DPP).  Legislation to that effect was drafted in 2003, 
but was not passed due to opposition among cabinet 
members.   A revision to the Corrupt Practices Act, 
which mandated the DPP to report to Parliament on any 
cases it does not prosecute, was passed in 2004 instead. 
 
¶39.  Malawi subscribes to the provisions of the OECD 
Convention on Combating Bribery, but is not a signatory 
of the Convention.  Malawi's Penal Code prohibits 
bribery.  Giving or receiving a bribe -- whether to or 
from a Malawian or foreign official -- is a crime under 
section 90 of Malawi's penal code.  Accordingly, bribes 
are not tax deductible. 
Bilateral Investment Agreements 
------------------------------- 
¶40.  Malawi's policy is to negotiate bilateral 
investment treaties with countries whose nationals opt 
to invest in Malawi.  The United States-Malawi Double 
Taxation Agreement from the colonial period was canceled 
by the United States in 1983.  To date, there is neither 
a bilateral investment nor a taxation treaty.  There 
have been no taxation issues of concern to U.S. 
investors since 1996. 
 
¶41.  Malawi acceded to the Multilateral Investment 
Guarantee Agency (MIGA) in 1985/86.  Since MIGA provides 
mechanisms for the settlement of investment disputes, 
Malawi has not renewed several investment treaties that 
lapsed after 1986.  However, the United Kingdom, the 
Netherlands, Denmark, South Africa, Norway, Sweden and 
Switzerland still maintain Double Taxation Treaties with 
Malawi. 
 
OPIC and Other Insurance Programs 
--------------------------------- 
¶42.  Malawi has had an OPIC investment guarantee 
agreement since 1967.  In August 1999 the U.S. Export- 
Import Bank included Malawi under its new Africa Short- 
term Export Credit Insurance Program.  The estimated 
annual U.S. Dollar value of local currency likely to be 
used by the U.S. Mission is about USD 3.0 million. 
Malawi operates a managed-float exchange rate system in 
which the RBM buys or sells foreign exchange whenever 
foreign exchange reserves deviate significantly from 
targets jointly agreed upon with the IMF. 
 
¶43.  Foreign exchange availability in Malawi follows the 
agricultural cycle and tends to be plentiful from April 
through September when tobacco sales generate foreign 
exchange inflows.  The agricultural cycle, regional 
political and economic troubles (in, for example, 
Zimbabwe), and large influxes of foreign exchange from 
donor countries can all influence the Dollar/Kwacha 
exchange rate, which has been somewhat volatile over the 
past two years.  As of May 2004, the Kwacha was trading 
at around 109 to the dollar. 
 
Labor 
----- 
¶44.  The Government of Malawi estimates that more than 
half of the population is of working age. Unskilled 
labor is plentiful.  Skilled labor is scarce. 
Occupational categories with skills shortages include 
accountants and related personnel; economists; 
engineers; primary and secondary school teachers; 
lawyers; and medical and health personnel.  The 
University of Malawi provides bachelors and masters 
degrees in economics, engineering, medicine, education, 
agriculture and administration.  The Malawi College of 
Accountancy teaches accounting.  Chancellor College 
operates the country's law school.  In early 1999, the 
government established the Technical, Entrepreneurial 
and Vocational Education and Training (TEVET) program to 
address technical skills shortages in industry. 
 
¶45.  The Labor Relations Act (LRA) governs labor- 
relations management in Malawi.  It was signed into law 
in June 1996, and entered into force on December 1, 
¶1997.  The Act allows strikes and lockouts for 
registered workers and employers after dispute 
settlement procedures in collective agreements and 
conciliation have failed.  As democracy and trade union 
rights have existed only since 1994, industrial 
relations are still evolving.  Employers, labor unions, 
and government lack sufficient knowledge of their 
legitimate roles in labor relations/disputes. 
 
¶46.  Workers have the legal right to form and join trade 
unions.  As of December 2003, 26 unions were registered. 
Union membership is low, however, given the small 
percentage of the work force in the formal sector (about 
12%), the lack of awareness of worker rights and 
benefits, and a resistance on the part of many employees 
to join unions.  Only 13% of people employed in the 
formal sector belong to unions.  Unions may form or join 
federations, and have the right to affiliate with and 
participate in the affairs of international workers' 
organizations.  While the government is a signatory to 
the ILO Convention protecting worker rights, mechanisms 
for enforcing the provisions of the convention are weak. 
There are serious manpower shortages at the Ministry of 
Labor, resulting in almost no labor-standards 
inspections. 
 
Foreign Trade Zones/Free Ports 
------------------------------ 
¶47.  Legislation for the establishment of export 
processing zones (EPZs) came into force in December 
¶1995.  All companies engaged exclusively in manufacture 
for export may apply for EPZ status.  As of June 2004, 
Malawi had approved 21 firms for EPZ status, of which 17 
were operational and four had closed operations.  A 
manufacturing under bond (MUB) scheme offers slightly 
less attractive incentives to companies that export 
some, but not all, of their manufactures.  (See 
paragraph 69.) 
 
Foreign Direct Investment Statistics 
------------------------------------ 
¶48.  The RBM maintains records on the value and 
composition of foreign direct investment in Malawi.  The 
U.S. Dollar value (in current dollars) of total annual 
FDI for the 1994 to 2002 time period follows: 
 
Year    Value (USD)     Sector(s) (Country of Origin) 
1994    426,000         Agriculture (United Kingdom) 
 
1995    4,354,041       Banking (Zambia), Agriculture 
                        (Switzerland), Property (Malta), 
                        Other (UK, Republic of South Africa 
                        - RSA), Garments (RSA) 
 
1996    14,075,234      Agriculture (UK), Telecoms 
                        (Malaysia), Health (Malta), Garments 
                        (RSA), Other (USA) 
 
1997    5,734,982       Manufacturing (RSA), Other (USA, UK) 
 
1998    139,883         Textiles (RSA), Chemicals (RSA), 
                        Computers (UK) 
 
1999    95,059,000      Finance Services (USA, UK), 
                        Manufacturing (USA, RSA, Zimbabwe), 
                        Distribution (UK), Communication 
                        (Netherlands) 
 
2000    45,220,000      Retail (UK, France), Manufacturing 
                        (UK, RSA), Health (RSA), 
                        Finance/Share Capital (USA) 
 
2001    33,300,000      Manufacturing (UK, South Korea) 
 
2002    55,573,833      Telecoms, Manufacturing, 
                        Communications, Agriculture, 
                        Tourism, Mining, Construction 
                        (Taiwan, Pakistan, Netherlands, RSA, 
                        United States, Uganda, South Africa, 
                        India, Germany, China, Pakistan) 
 
Source: Reserve Bank of Malawi 
 
N.B.  The Reserve Bank cautions that these figures may 
under-represent the actual amounts of foreign direct 
investment. 
 
 
DOUGHERTY